2.2 Technological development of nuclear-powered vessels
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The Soviet resolution to build nuclear submarines was adopted in a state decree dated December 21, 1952.[75] At this time, research and development of reactor technology was already in progress. A pressurised water reactor was built at the Obninsk Centre outside Moscow, and shortly thereafter a liquid metal cooled reactor also came on line. Both reactors were used for testing reactor technology and for the training of submarine crews. Later the men trained here would be transferred to Soviet Union's first nuclear submarines.
The selection and training of the first nuclear submarine crews began in 1954. In 1955, the first naval reactor in Obninsk was started and training of recruits for the first two nuclear submarines K-3 and K-5 begun. Naval recruits for the submarines K-8, K-14 and K-19 were trained the following year. Simultaneously, a liquid metal cooled reactor prototype was started up for the purposes of training personnel for the submarine K-27.[76]
Construction of the first Soviet nuclear submarine K-3 (Leninsky Komsomol), a Project 627 A - November class vessel, started September 24, 1955, in Molotovsk (Severodvinsk).[77] The submarine was launched August 9, 1957, and the two reactors started up for the first time between July 3-4, 1958.[78] The first American nuclear submarine USS Nautilus was commissioned three years earlier on January 17, 1955. Since the United States had a three year head start, the Soviet Union decided to commission K-3 even before the reactor test results were in.[79] Nuclear-powered submarines enabled both the United States and the Soviet Union to carry nuclear weapons close to their mutual coastlines unnoticed. Indeed, the placing of nuclear missiles onto nuclear submarines became a significant contributing factor to the arms race.
2.2.1 First generation nuclear-powered submarines
The first generation Soviet naval submarines included: Project 627 A - November class, 658 - Hotel class, 659 - Echo-I class and 675 - Echo-II class. In total, from 1955 to 1964, a total of 55 first generation nuclear submarines were built. There were 13 November class, 8 Hotel class, 5 Echo-I class and 29 Echo-II class vessels. With its three ballistic nuclear missiles, the Project 658 - Hotel class submarine, K-19, was the first strategic submarine of the Soviet Union. K-145, a submarine of the same class, was refitted a few years later to carry six ballistic nuclear missiles. The Echo-I/Echo-II class submarines each carried eight cruise missiles. Some of the Echo-II submarines were rebuilt to be able to carry mini submarines. By 1992, all first generation nuclear submarines had been decommissioned.[80]
2.2.2 Second generation nuclear-powered submarines
From 1964 to 1974, the Soviet Union built 34 Project 667 A - Yankee class nuclear submarines. These submarines each carried 16 ballistic nuclear missiles with a range of 3000 kilometres. Having been constructed under the same fundamental principles as the American submarine class George Washington,[81] they consequently received the NATO classification "Yankee".[82] Of these 34 submarines, 10 were assigned to the Pacific Fleet and 24 to the Northern Fleet. The Yankee-class submarines are no longer operative and are presently being dismantled.
The Project 667 B - Delta-I class submarines are a modified version of the Yankee class submarines.[83] These submarines have been modified to carry 12 intercontinental ballistic nuclear missiles with a range of 9000 kilometres. Considerable improvements were made to the navigation systems. With the possession of intercontinental missiles, it was no longer necessary to patrol the American coasts. Missiles directed at the American continent could be launched from submarines stationed just off the Kola coast or from patrolling areas beneath the polar ice cap. The successors to the Delta-I class submarines, Project 667 BD - Delta-II, Project 667 BDR - Delta-III and Project 667 BDRM Delta-IV were fitted with 16 intercontinental missiles with a range which enabled them to be launched directly from the submarine's base. These later models of the Delta class were also developed to be considerably quieter than their Yankee and Delta-I class predecessors. This was in direct response to the American construction of the SOSUS listening network, which is a network of submerged cables for the purpose of detecting Russian submarines. The network was laid along the east and west coasts of the United States as well as along the coasts of northern Norway, Greenland, Iceland, the Faeroe Islands and Great Britain.[84] A total of 43 submarines of Delta I-IV classes were constructed from 1971 to 1992.
Other second generation nuclear submarines include the Project 670 - Charlie class and Project 671 - Victor class. These submarines were developed simultaneously with the Yankee class.[85] There were 17 submarines in the Charlie-I-II classes, while a total of 48 Victor I-III class submarines were built. A number of these are still in service. The Charlie class submarines are fitted with cruise missiles, and their main purpose is to counter hostile aircraft carriers and surface ships. Submarines of the Victor classes are attack submarines whose objective is to counter enemy submarines.[86] These vessels are also the first Soviet submarines to be equipped with only one pressurised water reactor.[87] Today, almost all of the Yankee class submarines have been decommissioned. The other second generation nuclear submarines are gradually being replaced by third and fourth generation submarines.
2.2.3 Third generation nuclear -powered submarines
Construction of the first class of third generation nuclear submarines, the Project 941 - Typhoon class, began in 1977,[88] and the first of these vessels was taken into service in 1981. By 1989, six Typhoon class submarines had been built, and the vessels in this class are definitively the world's largest submarines, carrying 200 nuclear warheads each. The Typhoon class submarine was developed to ensure the Soviet capability of massive retaliation in the event of a nuclear attack. A seventh Typhoon class submarine was under construction at the Severodvinsk shipyard, but the work was halted, ostensibly due to the political changes in the Soviet Union towards the end of the 1980s.[89]
The third generation of submarines is substantially improved, both in reactor technology, additional and improved electronic equipment, and quieter machinery compared to previous generations of submarines. In 1980, the Northern Fleet's first submarine in the new Project 949 - Oscar I class, went into service. The Oscar class of submarines carry cruise missiles and were designed to hunt down and sink hostile aircraft carriers. The first Project 949 A - Oscar-II class submarine came on stream a few years later. Four attack submarines of the Project 945 - Sierra class, were taken into use between 1984 to 1993. These vessels have a titanium hull.[90] In 1990, an improved version of the Sierra class, the Project 971 - Akula class came into operation. This is the quietest and most modern submarine in the Russian Navy.[91] Some of the earliest of the Akula class submarines have been modernised to further reduce the noise level,[92] and the most recently built vessels have been improved to such an extent that they are even quieter than those that were commissioned in 1990. These submarines are classified Akula II and are 4 metres longer than the earlier vessels of the Akula I class.[93] Of the third generation nuclear submarines, only the Project 949 A - Oscar-II class and Project 971 - Akula-II class are still under construction.[94]
2.2.4 Fourth generation of nuclear-powered submarines
In late December 1993, construction began on a fourth generation of nuclear powered submarines, the Project 885 - Severodvinsk class.[95] The prototype was launched in 1995, but it is not scheduled to be transferred to the Navy until 1998 at the earliest.[96] This submarine is even more silent running than those of the Project 971 - Akula class; American experts consider it to be the most advanced nuclear-powered submarine in the world.[97] There are three Severodvinsk class submarines under construction, and four more are planned.[98] The latter four have the classification Severodvinsk-I. It is not known how the two submarine projects differ from one another. Construction of this class of vessels will probably begin in 2002-2004 at the Severodvinsk shipbuilding yard, and they will then enter service from 2006-2008.[99] These submarines will probably be fitted with both strategic and cruise missiles with multiple nuclear warheads.[100]
Work is also underway on the development of a new type of strategic nuclear-powered submarine, and these submarines will join the strategic forces represented today by submarines in the Project 667 BDRM - Delta-IV and Project 941 - Typhoon classes, perhaps one day replacing them. The class is known as Project 935. The Project 935 submarines will probably be half the size of the Typhoon submarines and will be equipped with 20 SLBM missiles.[101] There is no information confirming that this class of vessels will actually be built.[102] The Project 935 vessels may well be the fifth generation of Russian nuclear-powered submarines, and they will, if constructed, enter service in 2015 at the earliest.[103]
2.2.5 Nuclear-powered submarines with liquid metal cooled reactors.
Right after the Soviet Union's first nuclear-powered submarine was put in operation in the summer 1958, preparations were made for the construction of Project 645 class K-27, a submarine powered by two liquid metal cooled reactors (lead bismuth).[104] This vessel was designed by SKB-143 in St. Petersburg and was built at the Severodvinsk shipyard. Due to demands from the Supreme Soviet for rapid construction, the submarine was built using the already developed hull of the Project 627A-November class submarines. According to the Soviet designers, the advantages of the liquid metal cooled reactors is that less electrical power is needed for start up and shut down. Subsequently, the capacity of the batteries in K-27 was only a fourth of that in the submarines with pressurised water reactors. The submarine was also equipped with automatic turbo generators.[105] The K-27 suffered a series of accidents with its nuclear reactors, but remained in operation until the occurrence of a major accident with the reactors in 1968. In 1981, the entire vessel was dumped in the Kara Sea, near Novaya Zemlya.[106]
The experiences from the Project 645 submarine class formed the basis for a series of seven Project 705 and 705 K-Alfa class submarines. All were equipped with liquid metal cooled reactors, and they were smaller and faster than all of the preceding submarine types.[107] The Alfa class submarines were noisy and easy to detect, but superior in speed so that in battle, they would probably be able to outrun the torpedoes aimed at them. The principal task of the Alfa class submarines was to destroy the enemy's strategic submarines. Today, only one of these vessels, K-123, remains in operation .[108]
2.2.6 Prototype submarines
The Soviet Union has built five prototype submarines. The Project 645 class submarine (K-27) was the first and is described above. The next one was Project 661 - Papa class (K-162), a submarine developed in answer to a resolution of the Ministry of Defence and the Supreme Soviet to construct a fast nuclear submarine for the purposes of research. This submarine was powered by a new type of reactor, and had a hull built of titanium.[109] Project planning for the new submarine began in 1960 under the direction of chief designer N. N. Isain. It became operative in December 1969, and has the highest registered underwater speed for submarines at 44.7 knots.[110] The advantage of a titanium hull is that it becomes stronger, and can better endure the increased pressure at great depths while at the same time increasing its speed. Later, two series of nuclear submarines were constructed with titanium hulls: the Project 705 - Alfa class and the Project 945 - Sierra class.[111] Today there are no submarines being built with titanium hulls, presumably because these hulls are very expensive.[112]
The next prototype was the ill-fated Project 685 - Mike class submarine K-278 Komsomolets.[113] This vessel was also built with a titanium hull, and was the world's deepest diving nuclear submarine, with a registered diving depth of 1 022 metres.[114] Komsomoletssank in the Norwegian Sea in April 1989.
In addition to the prototype nuclear submarines, the Soviet Union also developed a nuclear reactor which by simple means could be installed into a diesel-driven submarine. The reactor carries the classification Nurka class, and today is located at Olenya naval base in Ara Bay. The diesel submarines in the Northern Fleet are the Project 940 - India class, Project 641-B - Tango class and Project 887 - Kilo class.[115], but it is not known into which of the diesel-powered submarine classes the Nurka reactors can be installed.[116]
2.2.7 Mini submarines
The Soviet Union has also developed three classes of mini submarines, all of which belong to the Northern Fleet. The mini submarines are as follows: one submarine of Project 10831 class, one of Project 1851 - X-ray class and three submarines of Project 1910 - Uniform class. Mini submarines are equipped with one pressurised water reactor each,[117] and are probably used for special missions. They do not carry nuclear weapons.[118]
2.2.8 Nuclear-powered surface vessels
Since 1974 three nuclear powered battleships, Project 1144 - Kirov class, have been built and taken into service,[119] namely the Admiral Ushakov, the Admiral Lazarev and the Admiral Nakhimov. In the latter half of 1995, a fourth one, the Pyotr Veliky, was tested at the shipyard in St. Petersburg, and is expected to become operational in 1996.[120] This ship will be transferred to the Northern Fleet.[121]
A nuclear-powered communication ship, Project 1941 - Kapusta class (SSV-33 Ural), was based with the Pacific Fleet, but was later laid up because it was too complex for the Navy to operate.[122]
The main problem with nuclear powered battle cruisers is the lack of properly equipped naval bases and facilities for servicing the reactors. In addition to the problem of reactor maintenance, the ships' diesel motors are worn out.[123] Hence, virtually none of these ships are operative, and are therefore laid up.[124] Secondly, another serious drawback is the lack of naval base facilities for refuelling the reactors.[125] Again, this reflects the problems described in Chapter 1 in that the construction of the necessary supporting naval bases and shipyards have not kept pace with .the development of nuclear powered naval vessels.
| Project | Nato Class | No. built | Reactores | Total reactors in class | Number operative in TDe NorTDern Fleet | Reactors operative in TDe NorTDern Fleet |
| 1st generation | ||||||
| 627 A | November | 13 | 2 (PWR) | 26 | 0 | 0 |
| 658 | Hotel | 8 | 2 (PWR) | 16 | 0 | 0 |
| 659 | Echo I | 5 | 2 (PWR) | 10 | 0 | 0 |
| 675 | Echo II | 29 | 2 (PWR) | 58 | 0 | 0 |
| 2nd generation | ||||||
| 667 A | Yankee | 34 | 2 (PWR) | 68 | 0 | 0 |
| 667 B-BDRM | Delta I-II-III-IV | 43 | 2 (PWR) | 86 | 18 | 36 |
| 670 | Charlie I-II | 17 | 1 (PWR) | 17 | 0 | 0 |
| 671 /RT/RTM | Victor I-II-III | 48 | 2 (PWR) | 96 | 18 | 36 |
| 3rd generation | ||||||
| 941 | Typhoon | 6 | 2 (PWR) | 12 | 6 | 12 |
| 949 /A/ | Oscar I-II | 12 | 2 (PWR) | 24 | 8 | 16 |
| 945 | Sierra | 4 | 1 (PWR) | 4 | 4 | 4 |
| 971 | Akula | 12 | 1 (PWR) | 12 | 5 | 5 |
| LMR | ||||||
| 645 | ZhMT | 1 | 2 (LMR) | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| 705 | Alfa | 7 | 1 (LMR) | 7 | 1 | 1 |
| Prototype | ||||||
| 661 | Papa | 1 | 2 (PWR) | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| 685 | Mike | 1 | 1 (PWR) | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| Mini submarines | ||||||
| 10831 | 10831 | 1 | 1 (PWR) | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 1851 | X-ray | 1 | 1 (PWR) | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 1910 | Uniform | 3 | 1 (PWR) | 3 | 3 | 3 |
| Surface vessels | ||||||
| 1144 | Kirov | 4 | 2 (PWR) | 8 | 2 (3) | 4 (6) |
| 1941 | Ural | 1 | 2 (PWR) | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| Total: | 247 | 456 | 67 | 119 | ||
Table 4: Number of nuclear powered vessels built in the Soviet Union/Russia in the period 1958 1995.
 |
[75] Decree No. 570-2011 from the Supreme Soviet, December 21, 1952, Moscow. Referred by Mormul, N., Note, 1995. Return
[76] Mormul, N., Note, 1995. Return
[77] Pavlov, A.S., Military Vessels in the Soviet Union and Russia 1945-1995., 1994 Return
[78] Mormul, N., Note, 1995. Return
[79] Morskoy sbornik, No.1, 1995. Return
[80] Pavlov, A.S., Military Vessels in the Soviet Union and Russia 1945-1995, 1994 Return
[81] Krasnaya Zvezda, January 28, 1995. Return
[82] Severny Rabochy, January 27, 1994. Return
[83] Krasnaya Zvezda, January 28, 1995. Return
[84] Nezavisimaya Gazeta, October 25, 1994. Return
[85] Krasnaya Zvezda, April 29, 1995. Return
[86] Krasnaya Zvezda, January 29, 1995 Return
[87] Pavlov, A.S., Military Vessels in the Soviet Union and Russia 1945-1995, 1994. Return
[88] Krasnaya Zvezda, January 28, 1995. Return
[89] Pavlov, A.S., Military Vessels in the Soviet Union and Russia 1945-1995, 1994. Return
[90] Na Strazhe Zapolyarya, April 22, 1995. Return
[91] Krasnaya Zvezda, January 28, 1995. Return
[92] Office of Naval Intelligence Worldwide Submarine Proliferation in the Coming Decade, (3rd edition), May 1995. Return
[93] Jane's Defence Weekly, No. 9, February 28, 1996. Return
[94] Morskoy sbornik, No. 7, 1995. Return
[95] Pavlov, A.S., Military Vessels in the Soviet Union and Russia 1945-1995. 1994. Return
[96] Jane's Defence Weekly, No. 11, September 16, 1995. Return
[97] Office of Naval Intelligence, Worldwide Submarine Proliferation in the Coming Decade, (3rd edition), May 1995. Return
[98] Jane's Defence Weekly, November 4, 1995. Return
[99] Jane's Defence Weekly, No. 11, November 16, 1995. Return
[100] Lee, R. State of the Russian Navy data page, latest update, January 9, 1996. Return
[101] Ibid Return
[102] Jane's Fighting Ships 1995-1996, 98th edition. Return
[103] Jane's Defence Weekly, No. 9, February 28, 1996. Return
[104] Mormul, N., Note, 1995. Return
[105] Severny Rabochy, March 3, 1994. Return
[106] Yablokov, A. V., Facts and problems related to radioactive waste disposals in seas adjacent to the territory of the Russian Federation, Moscow 1993. Return
[107] Burov, V. N., Otechestvennoye voyennoye Korablestroyeniye, St. Petersburg, 1995. Return
[108] Jane's Defence Weekly, November 4, 1995. Return
[109] Osipenko, L., Shiltsov, L., and Mormul, N., Atomnaya Podvodnaya Epopeya, 1994. Return
[110] Krasnaya Zvezda, May 27, 1995. Return
[111] Mormul, N., Note, 1995. Return
[112] Na Strazye Zapolyarya, April 22, 1995. Return
[113] Morskoy sbornik, No. 4, 1994. Return
[114] Na Strazye Zapolyarya, April 22, 1995 and Morskoy sbornik, No. 4, 1994. Return
[115] Jane's Fighting Ships 1995-96, 98th edition. Return
[116] Information from the Ukrainian Ministry of Defence, 1994. Return
[117] Ibid. Return
[118] The Norwegian periodical Vårt Vern, No. 3, 1993 Return
[119] Pavlov, A.S., Military Vessels in the Soviet Union and Russia 1945-1995, 1994. Return
[120] Na Strazhe Zapolyarya, April 22 1995 and Krasnaya Zvezda, October 13 1995. Return
[121] Krasnaya Zvezda, October 13, 1995. Return
[122] Pavlov, A.S., Military Vessels in the Soviet Union and Russia 1945-1995, 1994. Return
[123] Handler, J., Greenpeace, Radioactive Waste Situation in the Russian Pacific Fleet, Nuclear Disposal Problems, Submarine Decommissioning, Submarine Safety, and Security of Naval Fuel, p. 35, October 27, 1994. Return
[124] Morskoy sbornik, No. 6 -1993. Return
[125] Ibid. Return
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