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• FOREWORD
• INTRODUCTION
• 1. SUN ENERGY AND ITS POTENTIAL
• 1.1. General remarks
• 1.2. Solar radiation: An outline
• 1.3. Radiation balance of the Kola Peninsula
• 1.4. Sunshine durations
• 1.5. Prospective uses of solar energy on the Kola
• 2. WIND ENERGY
• 2.1. Average wind speeds
• 2.2 Wind speed and direction frequency
• 2.3. Maximum wind speeds
• 2.4. Technical wind energy resources of the region
• 2.5 Types of wind power installations
• 2.6. Wind energy application trends
• 2.7. Feasible sites for wind parks
• 2.8. Technical and economic peculiarities of opera
• 3. SMALL RIVER ENERGY
• 3.1. A general evaluation of the region’s hydroene
• 3.2. Hydroelectric power plants in operation on th
• 3.3. Hydroenergy potential of small rivers
• 3.4. First priority river sites for the constructi
• 3.5. Small hydroelectric power plants for remote a
• 4. TIDAL ENERGY
• 4.1. Tidal energy’s distinctive features
• 4.2. Recommended TPP sites and their energy potent
• 4.3. Readiness levels for the technical applicatio
• 4.4. Environmental aspects of application of tidal
• 4.5. Tidal energy application prospects: A general
• 5. WAVE ENERGY
• 5.1. General information on utilizing the energy o
• 5.2. Energy of surface waves.
• 5.3. Undulation’s renewable energy
• 5.4. A brief outline of main types of wave energy
• 5.5. Technical resources of ocean surface wave en
• 6. BIOENERGY RESOURCES
• 6.1. Utilization of biodegradable wastes from live
• 6.2. Evaluating bioenergy resources: Background da
• 6.3. Energy potential of fuel production with anae
• 6.4. Effects gained from application of anaerobic
• 6.5. Prospects of application of lumber wastes
• CONCLUSION
• CITED LITERATURE

1.5. Prospective uses of solar energy on the Kola Peninsula

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Experience gathered by Scandinavian nations demonstrates that solar power installations can be a quite effective solution where a population’s demand for heat supply is concerned. However, as is evident from Fig. 1.4., vast amounts of energy need to be accumulated during the summer months for an area to be able to supply its energy users all year round with heat harvested from solar energy. Heat accumulator designs can be based on both underground thermal reservoirs (Swedish experience) and ground-based reservoirs, thoroughly insulated against the surrounding environments.

Fig. 1.5 represents a basic solar heating system based on such a storage tank [12]. The main components of the system are: a collector, a heat reservoir, and a backup (auxiliary) power source employed in case of a protracted absence of sunshine or when the reserve heat capacity has been exhausted. Four possible operation modes for such a system can be outlined:

Mode 1. If solar energy is available, but there is no demand for heating, then all the energy received from the collector is stored in the accumulator.

Mode 2. If solar energy is available, and there is a demand for heating, then all the energy received from the collector is spent to supply heat to cover energy users’ needs.

Mode 3. If solar energy is not available, but there is a demand for heating, and there is reserve energy stored in the accumulator, then the heating demand is covered by this accumulated energy.

Mode 4. If solar energy is not available, but there is a demand for heating, and the energy reserve in the storage tank has been exhausted, then the backup energy source is used to cover heating needs.

Fig. 1.4. Seasonal changes in sunshine durations in Sweden’s Ingelstad (1) and in Umba (2) on the southern coast of the Kola Peninsula

Fig. 1.5. Solar heating system.

Table 1.2

Month	Hours of the day
	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16	17	18	19	20	21	22	23	24	Per 24 hours	Per month
January										0	12	23	23	23	12										93	2883
February								0	23	47	82	105	117	105	70	47	12								608	17024
March						0	23	70	128	175	221	256	268	245	210	152	82	35	12						1877	58187
April				0	23	70	128	198	268	314	350	373	349	326	291	233	186	105	47	12	0				3273	98190
May		0	12	35	82	140	210	280	338	384	419	431	431	385	361	315	256	198	128	70	23	12	0		4510	139810
June	12	12	23	47	93	163	221	291	350	408	443	466	455	420	396	361	303	245	175	117	58	35	23	12	5129	153870
July	0	0	12	35	70	128	186	233	303	350	419	454	466	431	408	350	303	221	151	93	47	23	12	0	4695	145545
August			0	12	35	82	152	221	291	338	373	408	420	420	385	326	245	163	93	35	12	0			4011	124341
September					0	12	47	93	140	175	210	221	210	187	152	105	70	35	12	0					1669	50070
October							0	12	35	58	93	93	105	82	58	23	12	0							571	17701
November									12	23	23	35	35	23	12	0									163	4890
December											12	12	12	0											36	1116
Per year																										813627

The solar heating system represented above allows for certain adjustments in the circuit, which consists of a solar collector and an accumulator. Independently, adjustments can also be made in the system’s second part, which comprises a storage tank (accumulator), a backup energy source and the heating load: The water heated with solar energy can enter the accumulator at the same time as hot water can be collected from the accumulator to be delivered to the load, or consumer. This system has a bypass line provided for the storage tank, which prevents the accumulator from warming up with the heat emitted by the backup energy source. In areas that are afforded an increased wind energy potential, this heating system can be complemented with heating elements supplied by a wind energy converter (WEC). The heating elements can be installed directly in the storage tank.

Fig 1.6. represents an outline of the larger solar heating system in operation in Sweden’s Ingelstad. Solar energy, concentrated by the collector’s mirrors on absorber tubes, is converted into heat and is received by a heat-transfer medium being recirculated in them. The heat-transfer medium brings this heat to a heat exchanger A.

Fig. 1.6. A 52-home heat supply system in Sweden’s Ingelstad.

Heat is transferred from the secondary circuit of the heat exchanger either directly to a consumer through heat exchanger B, or to a large-capacity heat storage tank. Water temperature in the storage tank increases slowly throughout the summer and reaches its peak values of about 95°C in September. The heat accumulated in the summer is spent in the following months to cover heating and hot water needs of the consumers. At a certain point, water temperature in the storage tank can decrease to levels which will necessitate engaging the backup heat-generating system (boiler). The heat from the boiler will be transferred to the thermal grid through heat exchanger C. Similar to the heating system described above, wind energy installations can be employed additionally in areas where increased wind energy potential is available. The energy harvested by wind energy converters can be collected from heat exchanger A, and then either directed straight to the consumers, or stored in the storage tank. As spring approaches and periods of continuous sunshine hours gradually increase, solar collectors again begin their efficient operation and provide their input into the energy supply system.

The technical and economic expediency of solar heating supply systems is contingent on a number of factors: the geographic latitude of the system’s location; the variables of the location’s solar energy exposure; solar collector prices; costs of creating and maintaining conventional energy systems; fuel prices, etc. Solar heating systems offer their best options when applied in remote and isolated locations, where costs incurred by maintaining heat supply through systems based on fossil fuels are high due to challenges imposed by fuel transport. In connection with the rising fuel prices, expenses for fossil fuel supply have increased lately which seems to ensure the efficient introduction of solar energy installations in the very near future. However, as will be demonstrated in [2], today’s unit price of one solar cell battery on the international market is $4,000 to $5,000 per kilowatt, while prices for photovoltaic power systems vary between $7,000 and $10,000 per kilowatt (by comparison, the unit price for one wind power installation is only $1,000 to $2,000 per kilowatt). Solar power rates fluctuate between $0.20 and $0.30 per kilowatt-hour (or between RUR 6 and RUR 8 per kilowatt-hour), which is still a considerable hike from rates set for energy produced by conventional power sources. However, as technologies improve and become less costly, solar energy installations can in the future be expected to take their deserved place in the energy sector.

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